Is Hindutva a Form of Islamophobia?

Hindutva

Hindutva, a political ideology first enunciated by Veer Savarkar in 1923 in a book by that very name, is subscribed to by the RSS-BJP combine. Savarkar makes it very clear in the very beginning of his book that Hindutva is not the same as Hinduism. He writes, “Hindutva is not a word but a history. Not only the spiritual or religious history of our people as at times it is mistaken to be by being confounded with the other cognate term Hinduism, but a history in full. Hinduism is only a derivative, a fraction, a part of Hindutva…Had not linguistic usage stood in our way then ‘Hinduness’ would have certainly been a better word than Hinduism as a near parallel to Hindutva. Hindutva embraces all the departments of thought and activity of the whole Being of our Hindu race. Therefore, to understand the significance of this term Hindutva, we must first understand the essential meaning of the word Hindu itself…”

Who does Savarkar characterize as being a Hindu?

He notes after a long exploration of the term from its ancient historical roots to our times, thus: “A Hindu is primarily a citizen either in himself or through his forefathers of ‘Hindusthan’ and claims the land as his motherland. In America as well as in France the word Hindu is generally understood thus exactly in the sense of an Indian without any religious or cultural implication. And had the word Hindu been left to convey this primary significance only, which it had in common with all the words derived from Sindhu then it would really have meant an Indian, a citizen of Hindusthan as the word Hindi does.”

The Paradoxical Secular Streak in Savarkar

He writes, “So although the root-meaning of the word Hindu like the sister epithet Hindi may mean only an Indian, yet as it is we would be straining the usage of words too much—we fear, to the point of breaking-if we call a Mohammedan a Hindu because of his being a resident of India. It may be that at some future time the word Hindu may come to indicate a citizen of Hindusthan and nothing else; that day can only rise when all cultural and religious bigotry has disbanded its forces pledged to aggressive egoism, and religions cease to be ‘isms’ and become merely the common fund of eternal principles that lie at the root of all that are a common foundation on which the Human State majestically and firmly rests.”

He goes on to write towards the end, “We are trying our best, as we ought to do, to develop the consciousness of and a sense of attachment to the greater whole, whereby Hindus, Mohammedans, Parsis Christians, and Jews would feel as Indians first and every other thing afterwards.”

Why Does Savarkar “Fear” to Call a Mohammedan a Hindu at First Glance?

Although Savarkar characterized a Hindu as anyone who is or whose forefathers were citizens of India, claiming it as their fatherland. But, he fears to call a Mohammedan a “Hindu” even though he may be resident in India because “although the first requisite of Hindutva is that he be a citizen of Hindusthan either by himself or through his forefathers, yet it is not the only requisite qualification of it, as the term Hindu has come to mean much more than its geographical significance.”

What then are the other requisite qualifications for being a “Hindu” according to Savarkar?

He writes, “The Hindus are not merely the citizens of the Indian state because they are united not only by the bonds of the love they bear to a common motherland but also by the bonds of a common blood. They are not only a Nation but also a race-jati. The word jati derived from the root Jan to produce, means a brotherhood, a race determined by a common origin,-possessing a common blood. All Hindus claim to have in their veins the blood of the mighty race incorporated with and descended from the Vedic fathers, the Sindhus.”

An Additional Criteria for Characterizing Hindus/Hindutva

Savarkar writes, “…a moment’s consideration would show that these two qualifications of one nation and one race—of a common fatherland and therefore of a common blood— cannot exhaust all the requisites of Hindutva…We are one because we are a nation, a race, and own a common Sanskriti (civilization).”

Savarkar goes on to ask next, What is civilization?

“Civilization is the expression of the mind of man. The story of the civilization of a nation is the story of its thoughts, its actions and its achievements. Literature and art tell us of its thoughts; history and social institutions of its actions and achievements…although the Hindus have lent much and borrowed much like any other people, yet their civilization is too characteristic to be mistaken for any other cultural unit. And secondly, however striking their mutual differences be, they are too much more like each other than unlike, to be denied the right of being recognized as a cultural unit amongst other such units in the world owning a common history, a common literature and a common civilization.”

He goes on to note that “Common institutions and a common law that sanctions and sanctifies them, however they may differ in details are nevertheless both the cause and the effect of the basic unity of our race.”

Savarkar’s Final Comprehensive Definition of a “Hindu”

“A Hindu then is he who feels attachment to the land that extends from Sindhu to Sindhu as the land of his forefathers—as his Fatherland; who inherits the blood of the great race whose first and discernible source could be traced from the Himalayan altitudes of the Vedic Saptasindhus and which assimilating all that was incorporated and ennobling all that was assimilated has grown into and come to be known as the Hindu people; and who, as a consequence of the foregoing attributes, has inherited and claims as his own the Hindu Sanskriti, the Hindu civilization, as represented in a common history, common heroes, a common literature, common art, a common law and a common jurisprudence, common fairs and festivals, rites and rituals, ceremonies and sacraments. Not that every Hindu has all these details of the Hindu Sanskriti down to each syllable common with other Hindus; but that, he has more of it common with his Hindu brothers than with, say, an Arab or an Englishman. Not that a non-Hindu does not hold any of these details in common with a Hindu but that, he differs more from a Hindu than he agrees with him.”

So, Where Does that Leave the Muslims?

“Christian and Mohammedan communities, who, were but very recently Hindus and in a majority of cases had been at least in their first generation most unwilling denizens of their new fold, claim though they might have a common Fatherland, and an almost pure Hindu blood and parentage with us, cannot be recognized as Hindus; as since their adoption of the new cult they had ceased to own Hindu civilization (Sanskriti) as a whole. They belong, or feel that they belong, to a cultural unit altogether different from the Hindu one. Their heroes and their hero-worship, their fairs and their festivals, their ideals and their outlook on life, have now ceased to be common with ours. Thus the presence of this third essential of Hindutva which requires of every Hindu uncommon and loving attachment to his racial Sanskriti enables us most perfectly to determine the nature of Hindutva without any danger of using over lapping or exclusive attributes.”

About Buddhists, Jains, and followers of other offshoots of Hinduism,Savarkar says that people “whether of the Vaidik period or of Bauddha, Jain or any extremely modern ones of Chaitanya, Chakradhar, Basava, Nanak, Dayananda or Raja Rammohan” are Hindus/true Indians because to them “this land is not only a Pitribhu but a Punyabhu, not only a fatherland but a holyland.”

Why Savarkar Fears the Muslims?

Savarkar fears the Muslims because “Mecca to them is a sterner reality than Delhi or Agra. Some of I them do not make any secret of being bound to sacrifice all India if that be to the glory of Islam or could save the city of their prophet. Look at the Jews; neither centuries of prosperity nor sense of gratitude for the shelter they found, can make them more attached or even equally attached to the several countries they inhabit. Their love is, and must necessarily be divided between the land of their birth and the land of their Prophets. If the Zionists’ dreams are ever realized—if Palestine becomes a Jewish State and it will gladden us almost as much as our Jewish friends—they, like the Mohammedans would naturally set the interests of their Holyland above those of their Motherland in America and Europe and in case of war between their adopted country and the Jewish State, would naturally sympathise with the latter, if indeed they do not bodily go over to it. History is too full of examples of such desertions to cite particulars. The crusades again, attest to the wonderful influence that a common holyland exercises over peoples widely separated in race, nationality and language, to bind and hold them together.”

Modern Day Fears About Muslims

Savarkar’s fears about Muslims being more loyal to their religious brotherhood than to India as a nation, that is, more loyal to their holyland than to their fatherland, are shared by many Hindus in today’s India, and most certainly by those owing allegiance to the RSS-BJP combine, not to mention their members and leaders. Even an “average” Hindu suspects the loyalty of a Muslim to India.

While such a fear may be relevant only in times of crisis, such as a war, there are other fears about Muslims as a religious group that have more bite. One such major fear is that if the Muslims were to become a majority in parts or whole of India at some future point in time, they would ride roughshod over the Hindus, resort to forcible conversions of Hindus to Islam, and impose sharia law, thereby destroying the liberal and democratic fabric of India taking it back to the dark social realities of the Mideval times and those of some Muslim-majority countries today that are not secular but theocratic.

To bolster this fear, numbers are bandied around about the rising fertility rate of Muslims in comparison to that of Hindus. Now, it is not my mission to prove or disprove that statistic. But, rather, I want to raise the counterfactual question that “Even if Muslims become the majority in India, does it automatically mean that things will play out for the Hindus as we are fearing now?” My short answer to that is, “I am not so sure.”

Before I point out why our fears about what would happen if Muslims become the majority are not necessarily well-founded, I would like to point out that, operating in the present with our policies, attitudes, and behaviours towards the Muslims based on such speculations, only feeds into making such a possibility come true, even if it would not have had we not founded our actions on fears, by anatgonizing them from now until they slowly turn into a majority, which would embitter them so much by that time that they would be in a mood to take vengeance once they attain the majority, unleashing on the Hindus the very thing they are trying to avoid now.

Hence, it would seem that, since no one knows how the future will play out, and our theories and predictions about the future behaviour and predispositions of anyone, let alone Muslims, can never be certain, we would do well to not base the actions, be they those of the common populace or the powers that be, on fear of what may happen. In doing so, paradoxically and ironically, we would prevent our fears from coming true. As Buddha said, “Hatred is not conquered by hatred; hatred is conquered by love.”

For instance, an article details how Hindutva forces in India have been accused of generating their own Islamophobia, often using violent and divisive rhetoric to promote their agenda and how this has contributed to a climate of fear and mistrust towards Muslims.

Fears about Muslims: Are They Well-Founded?

To recap, the major fears pointed out above when it comes to Muslims in India are the following:

1. They are more loyal to Mecca than Delhi, to their fellow Muslims than to other Indians, so they can be a liability in times of crisis
2. If they become the majority in India, they can:
   1. Harass Hindus
   1. Make Hindus forcibly convert to Islam
   1. Impose Sharia law

Let us explore the above fears by talking about the following:

1. Historical context in India
2. The status of Hindus in Muslim-majority countries
3. The diversity in Muslim-majority countries
4. Rebellion and Dissent in Islamic Societies
5. The evolution of the interpretation of Quran
6. Liberal and Dissenting Voices on the Interpretation of Quran
7. Progressive or Liberal Movements in Islam
8. Is Islamophobia Justified?

Historical Context in India

• Muslim Invasions and Conquests: The Muslim invasions and subsequent conquests of the Indian subcontinent, starting from the 8th century, left a lasting impact on the Hindu psyche. The destruction of temples, forced conversions, and perceived subjugation under Muslim rulers contributed to a sense of vulnerability and resentment among some sections of the Hindu community.
• Colonial Legacy: During British colonial rule in India, the British employed a “divide and rule” policy, which exacerbated Hindu-Muslim tensions. This legacy of division contributed to mutual distrust and fear between communities.
• Partition and Communal Violence: The traumatic experience of the Partition of India in 1947, accompanied by widespread communal violence and displacement, further exacerbated the fear and mistrust between the two communities. The horrors of partition still resonate in collective memories, influencing contemporary attitudes.

The Status of Hindus in Muslim-majority Countries

In Pakistan

To be sure, the Hindus are not faring that well in the neighbouring Muslim-majority country Pakistan. At the time of the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, Hindus constituted about 15% of the population of West Pakistan (current Pakistan). But, The 2021 census reported that Hindus make up only about 2% of the total population in Pakistan. This decline is attributed to a combination of factors, including migration due to religious persecution, forced conversions, and natural demographic changes.

What is the Pakistan government doing to protect the interests of the Hnidus and other minorities in their country? There are several government initiatives to support the Hindu community in Pakistan, for example:

• Ministry of National Harmony: In 2011, the Government of Pakistan formed the Ministry of National Harmony to protect the rights of religious minorities, including Hindus. Although this ministry was merged with the Ministry of Religious Affairs in 2013, it was a significant step towards recognizing the importance of minority rights.
• Hindu Marriage Act: In 2016, the Sindh Hindu Marriage Act was passed, allowing Hindus in Sindh to register their marriages. This was followed by the Hindu Marriage Act of 2017, which was applicable in Islamabad Capital Territory, Balochistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and Punjab provinces.
• Reserved Seats for Non-Muslims: The Constitution of Pakistan provides for reserved seats for non-Muslims in the National Assembly and provincial assemblies. Although the number of reserved seats has not increased in recent years, this provision ensures some representation for Hindu and other minority communities.
• Pakistan Hindu Panchayat: The Pakistan Hindu Panchayat is a civic organization that represents and organizes Hindu communities on social, economic, religious, and political issues. It runs schools, conducts mass weddings, and provides other support services to the Hindu community.
• ISKCON: The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) has a significant presence in Pakistan and is involved in preaching, distributing the Bhagavad Gita, and conducting Rathayatras. It has a large following among Scheduled Caste Hindus in urban areas.
• Government Support for Hindu Pilgrimages: The government has supported Hindu pilgrimages, such as the Hinglaj Yatra, which is the largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan. The government has also reopened and restored several Hindu temples, including the 1,000-year-old Shivala Teja Singh temple in Sialkot.
• Education and Literacy Initiatives: The government has launched initiatives to improve education and literacy rates among Hindus, particularly among Scheduled Caste Hindus. For example, the Pakistan Hindu Seva Welfare Trust has conducted surveys and provided educational support to Scheduled Caste Hindu families.
• Protection of Minority Rights: The government has taken steps to protect minority rights, including the establishment of the National Commission for Minorities and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. These organizations work to promote and protect the rights of religious minorities, including Hindus.

What’s more, there are several notable figures and organizations within Pakistan advocating for the rights of religious minorities, for example:

• Muhammad Akram: A Pakistani Muslim who has been actively involved in promoting interfaith harmony and advocating for the rights of religious minorities. He has written extensively on the topic and has been a vocal critic of religious discrimination in Pakistan.
• Pir Pagara: A Sufi leader who has been a strong advocate for the rights of religious minorities, particularly Hindus. He has been involved in efforts to promote interfaith dialogue and has called for greater protection for minority rights.
• Pakistan Muslim League (Functional): A political party that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of religious minorities. They have tabled bills in the Pakistani parliament aimed at protecting minority rights and have been vocal critics of religious discrimination.
• Minority Rights Group International: A global organization that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of religious minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted research and advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by religious minorities in the country.
• United States Commission on International Religious Freedom: A U.S. government agency that has been actively involved in promoting religious freedom and protecting the rights of religious minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted research and advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by religious minorities in the country.

In addition to the above, the following organizations based in Pakistan are also fighting for the religious minorities, including Hindus:

• Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP): HRCP is a Pakistani human rights organization that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of religious minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted research and advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by religious minorities in the country.
• Pakistan Sikh Council: The Pakistan Sikh Council is a Sikh organization that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of Sikh minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by Sikh minorities in the country.
• Pakistan Hindu Council: The Pakistan Hindu Council is a Hindu organization that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of Hindu minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by Hindu minorities in the country.
• Ahmadiyya Muslim Community: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is a Muslim organization that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of religious minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by religious minorities in the country.
• South Asia Forum for Human Rights (Pakistan – Lahore Office): This organization is part of a global network that has been actively involved in promoting the rights of religious minorities in Pakistan. They have conducted research and advocacy efforts to highlight the issues faced by religious minorities in the country.

There have been several recent successes in minority rights advocacy in Pakistan. Here are a few examples:

• Minority Rights March 2023: The first-ever minority rights march was held in Karachi, attended by hundreds of people from various walks of life. The march aimed to campaign against issues faced by minorities and urge the government to respect their rights.
• Minority representation in local bodies: The Sindh government has taken steps to ensure representation of minorities in local bodies, including reserved seats for non-Muslims in the Sindh Assembly.
• Protection of minority rights in Sindh: The Sindh government has passed several laws to protect the rights of minorities, including the Sindh Minorities Protection Act 2018.

There are several notable case studies where international efforts significantly improved minority rights in Pakistan, for example:

• Supreme Court Decision (2014): The Supreme Court of Pakistan issued a landmark decision in June 2014, directing the government to take various measures to protect the rights of religious minorities. This decision was a significant step forward in promoting minority rights in Pakistan.
• 18th Constitutional Amendment (2010): The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, passed in 2010, devolved minority rights issues to the provincial level, facilitating the passage of specific pro-minority legislation in certain provinces. This amendment has helped to promote a more inclusive political structure and address the legacy of the One-Unit Scheme.
• Hindu Marriage Bill (2016): The Hindu Marriage Bill was passed in the Sindh Assembly in 2016, allowing Hindus to register their marriages and obtain legal recognition. This bill was a significant step forward in promoting the rights of Hindu minorities in Pakistan.
• Protection of Communal Properties (2013): A law was passed in Sindh in 2013 to protect communal properties belonging to religious minorities. This law has helped to safeguard the rights of minority communities to their religious and cultural heritage.
• National Commission on Human Rights (2015): The establishment of the National Commission on Human Rights in 2015 has provided a platform for minority rights activists to raise concerns and advocate for greater protection of minority rights.

In Malaysia

In contrast to Pakistan, the Hindu population in Malaysia has grown steadily. Estimates suggest around 1.97 million Hindus in Malaysia (2020 est.), which is approximately 6.1% of the total population (based on 2020 estimates), whereas in 1990, they were 5.9%.

The main challenges faced by Hindus in Malaysia today are:

• Discrimination and Inequality: Hindus are treated as second-class citizens, with limited access to education, employment, and economic opportunities compared to Muslims and Malays.
• Limited Freedom of Speech and Assembly: Hindus are fearful of speaking out against injustices and discrimination, as they may face repercussions from the government or Muslim authorities.
• Restrictions on Religious Practices: Hindus face restrictions on their religious practices, such as the prohibition on proselytizing Muslims and the requirement for Hindus to convert to Islam for interfaith marriages.
• Socio-Economic Inequality: Hindus are disproportionately represented in low-paying jobs and are often excluded from government contracts and business opportunities.
• Destruction of Hindu Temples: Hindu temples have been destroyed or desecrated, and there is a lack of protection for non-Muslim places of worship.
• Limited Representation in Government: Hindus have limited representation in government and are often excluded from decision-making processes.
• Fear of Persecution: Hindus face the fear of persecution and violence, particularly in rural areas where they are more vulnerable to attacks.
• Limited Access to Education: Hindus have limited access to quality education, with many being forced to attend low-quality schools or drop out of school due to financial constraints.
• Limited Access to Healthcare: Hindus have limited access to healthcare, with many being forced to rely on private healthcare providers due to the lack of government-funded healthcare services.
• Limited Access to Justice: Hindus face limited access to justice, with many cases of discrimination and violence going unreported or unresolved.

There are several measures that are being taken to address the discrimination faced by Hindus in Malaysia. These measures are aimed at addressing the discrimination faced by Hindus in Malaysia, as well as other minority groups, and ensuring that all citizens have equal rights and protections under the law:

• Constitutional Amendments: The report recommends amending the Federal Constitution to ensure that all citizens, regardless of religion, have equal rights and protections. This includes broadening the list of grounds of discrimination to include all grounds referenced in international human rights instruments, such as sexual orientation, gender identity, age, disability, health status, and nationality.
• Laws Protecting the Rights to Equality and Non-Discrimination: The report recommends adopting appropriate constitutional and legislative measures to implement the right to equality and non-discrimination. This includes ensuring comprehensive protection across all grounds of discrimination and in all areas of activity, and providing a clearer definition of what behaviors are prohibited as discrimination.
• Review of Syariah Law: The report recommends reviewing and amending Syariah law legislation, fatwas, and policies to remove discriminatory provisions, particularly on the grounds of gender, sexual orientation, and gender identity.
• Review of Criminal Law: The report recommends reviewing and amending criminal law to remove discriminatory provisions, such as those related to whipping and marital rape.
• Review of Economic Policies: The report recommends reviewing economic policies to ensure that any privileges granted on the ground of race or religion are kept under regular review to ensure the continued legitimacy of purpose and proportionality.
• Strengthening Constitutional Protections: The report recommends strengthening the existing constitutional protections of the rights to equality and non-discrimination by ensuring that both citizens and non-citizens benefit from the protections, and by broadening the list of grounds of discrimination.
• Enactment of Comprehensive Equality Legislation: The report recommends enacting comprehensive equality legislation that aims to eliminate direct and indirect discrimination and harassment in all areas of life, and that attributes obligations to public and private actors.

The Diversity in Muslim-majority Countries

While Islam shares core beliefs, its practice adapts to local contexts and cultures. Understanding these regional and cultural variations allows for a more nuanced view of how Muslims live their faith around the world.

Regional Variations

• Middle East & North Africa:
  • Islam tends to be more legalistic and focused on following established schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh).
  • Social norms and cultural practices often blend with religious observances.
  • The role of religious scholars (Imams) can be more prominent in daily life.
• Southeast Asia:
  • Islam is often more mystical and focused on personal spiritual development.
  • Sufi traditions (Islamic mysticism) are prominent in some areas.
  • Integration with local customs and beliefs is common.
• South Asia:
  • Islam may be more intertwined with cultural practices and traditions.
  • The influence of Sufism is significant in some regions.
  • Issues of social class and caste can intersect with religious beliefs.

Secular vs. Religious Governments

• Muslim-Majority Secular Countries:
  • Countries like Turkey or Indonesia have a secular legal system, but Islam remains a strong cultural force.
  • Individual expression of faith can vary widely.
• Religious-Dominated States:
  • Countries like Saudi Arabia implement stricter interpretations of Islamic law in public life.
  • Religious authorities have a more prominent role.

Factors Influencing Practice

• Historical and Cultural Background: Islam interacted with different cultures throughout history, leading to diverse interpretations and practices.
• Level of Religious Observance: Devotional practices like prayer and fasting can vary by region and individual.
• Role of Religious Authorities: The influence of Imams and scholars shapes interpretations and social norms.

Examples

• Dress Code: Headscarves for women may be mandatory in some countries, a personal choice in others.
• Sharia Law: Implementation and interpretation of Islamic law can differ significantly.
• Religious Holidays: Celebrations and customs surrounding holidays like Eid may vary regionally.

Public perceptions of Islam vary significantly between secular and non-secular Muslim-majority countries:

• Secular Countries: In secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is a greater emphasis on separating religion from the state, and many Muslims are more likely to support secularism and democracy. For example, in Turkey, only 12% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law of the land, and in Tunisia, 75% of Muslims support democracy.
• Non-Secular Countries: In non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a greater emphasis on implementing Islamic law (sharia) and many Muslims are more likely to support the role of religion in politics. For example, in Afghanistan, 99% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law of the land, and in Pakistan, 84% of Muslims support making sharia the official law.
• Regional Differences: Regional differences also play a significant role in shaping public perceptions of Islam. For example, in South Asia, there is a strong emphasis on implementing sharia, while in Central Asia, there is a greater emphasis on secularism.
• Influence of Political and Legal Systems: The political and legal systems of a country can also influence public perceptions of Islam. For example, in countries with religious family courts, many Muslims are more likely to support the role of religion in family law, while in countries with secular courts, there is less support for religious involvement in family law.
• Attitudes Toward Violence: Attitudes toward violence also vary between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a greater acceptance of violence as a means of defending Islam, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is less acceptance of violence.
• Perceptions of Religious Extremism: Perceptions of religious extremism also vary between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in countries like Egypt and Indonesia, there is a greater concern about religious extremism, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is less concern.
• Role of Religious Leaders: The role of religious leaders also varies between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, religious leaders often play a significant role in politics, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, religious leaders have less influence.
• Public Support for Sharia: Public support for sharia also varies between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a strong public support for sharia, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is less support.
• Attitudes Toward Women’s Rights: Attitudes toward women’s rights also vary between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a greater emphasis on traditional gender roles, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is a greater emphasis on women’s rights.
• Perceptions of the West: Perceptions of the West also vary between secular and non-secular countries. For example, in non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is often a negative view of the West, while in secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is a more positive view.

Attitudes towards sharia differ significantly between secular and non-secular Muslim-majority countries. Here are some key points:

• Secular Countries: In secular countries like Turkey and Tunisia, there is less support for sharia as the official law of the land. For example, in Turkey, only 12% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law, and in Tunisia, 56% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law but only 42% think religious courts should oversee family and property law. Countries with a history of secularization, such as those in Central Asia and Southern and Eastern Europe, tend to have lower levels of support for sharia as the official law of the land. For example, in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan, fewer than 10% of Muslims support making sharia the official law.
• Non-Secular Countries: In non-secular countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is strong support for sharia as the official law of the land. For example, in Afghanistan, 99% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law, and in Pakistan, 84% of Muslims want sharia to be the official law.
• Regional Differences: Regional differences also play a significant role in shaping attitudes towards sharia. For example, in South Asia, there is strong support for sharia as the official law of the land, while in Central Asia, there is less support.
• Age, Gender, Education: Across the countries surveyed, support for making sharia the official law of the land generally varies little by age, gender or education. However, in some countries, older Muslims tend to favor enshrining sharia as the law of the land more than younger Muslims. In countries where Muslims have higher levels of education and knowledge about Islam, support for sharia is higher.
• Historical and Cultural Context: The Middle East-North Africa region has a long history of Islamic rule and cultural influence, which has contributed to a stronger identification with Islamic law and a greater acceptance of sharia as the official law of the land. In contrast, Central Asia has a more complex and diverse cultural heritage, with a mix of Islamic, Russian, and other influences, which may have contributed to a lower level of support for sharia.
• Economic and Social Factors: Economic and social factors, such as poverty, unemployment, and social inequality, may also play a role in shaping support for sharia. In the Middle East-North Africa (MENA) region, many countries have experienced significant economic and social challenges, which may have contributed to a greater sense of disillusionment with secular governments and a greater support for sharia as a means of addressing these issues.
• Proximity to Saudi Arabia: The proximity of many countries in the MENA region to Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, may also play a significant role in shaping religious commitment. For example, Muslims in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and the Palestinian territories are more likely to have performed the hajj than their counterparts in Morocco and Tunisia.
• Higher Levels of Religious Commitment:  In many countries, Muslims with higher levels of religious commitment are more likely to support sharia. The Middle East-North Africa region has higher levels of religious commitment compared to Central Asia. For example, in the Middle East-North Africa region, at least 70% of people say religion is very important in their lives, while in Central Asia, fewer than 50% of people say this.

Rebellion and Dissent in Islamic Societies

Islamic societies, like all societies, are not monolithic. Rebellion and dissent in Islamic societies are driven by a complex interplay of factors, including calls for social justice, democratic reforms, and reinterpretations of Islamic teachings to address modern realities. There are strong currents of both tradition and reform, and dissent is a recurring theme throughout history. Here are some examples:

Historical Rebellions

• Early Islamic History: Debates and conflicts about rightful leadership (Caliphate) existed from the very beginning of Islamic history. Examples include the Shi’a-Sunni split and rebellions against Umayyad rule.
• Ottoman Empire Reforms: In the 19th century, the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed to modernize the state and society, facing resistance from conservatives.

Contemporary Examples

• Arab Spring (2010-2011): The Arab Spring was a wave of protests and uprisings across the Middle East and North Africa, driven by demands for democracy, human rights, and economic reforms.  The movement was fueled by social media and the desire for change in authoritarian regimes. While not exclusively an Islamic phenomenon, many of the countries involved had significant Muslim populations. Many participants sought change within an Islamic framework.
• Women’s Rights Movements: Across the Muslim world, women are increasingly challenging traditional restrictions on their rights. In recent years, there have been protests and dissent in Iran regarding women’s rights, particularly the mandatory hijab and the restrictions on women’s participation in public life. The protests have been met with force by the government, leading to arrests, injuries, and even deaths.

Underlying Causes of Dissent

• Authoritarian Rule: Oppressive regimes lacking legitimacy can spark dissent, even if couched in religious terms. People may seek Islamic principles of justice and equality to be upheld.
• Socioeconomic Issues: Poverty, unemployment, and corruption can fuel discontent, leading some to seek Islamic economic principles of fairness and social welfare.
• Desire for Modernization: Some Muslims advocate for reinterpreting Islamic teachings to address contemporary challenges like science, technology, and women’s rights.

Challenges and Complexities

• Dissent can be Diverse: Dissenting voices don’t always represent a single ideology. Some may call for secularism, while others advocate for a more progressive form of Islamic governance.
• Government Crackdown: Regimes may use religion to justify suppressing dissent, claiming it undermines Islamic values.
• The Role of Religious Authority: Religious scholars can play a complex role, either supporting reforms or using interpretations to bolster the status quo.

The Evolution of the Interpretation of Quran

While the Quran is considered the word of God by Muslims, its interpretation and application have been shaped by a variety of historical, cultural, and political factors.

Early Islam and Interpretation

After Prophet Muhammad’s death (632 CE), the Quran existed primarily as an oral tradition. Companions memorized and recited verses, passing them down. Debates arose about interpreting specific passages. To ensure uniformity, the Caliphs (early Islamic rulers) commissioned the first official Quranic script in the 7th century. This aimed to prevent variations and misinterpretations. Schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) emerged, each with its methodology for interpreting the Quran and deriving legal rulings. The four major Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali) and various Shia schools developed. Some scholars advocated for strict adherence to the literal meaning, while others considered context and the Prophet’s teachings.

1. The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD): After Muhammad’s death, the first four caliphs (known as the Rashidun) faced significant challenges in maintaining unity. Disputes over leadership and the rightful interpretation of Islamic teachings began early. The most notable conflict was the First Fitna (656-661 AD), a civil war which resulted in the division of the Muslim community into Sunni and Shia branches.
2. The Umayyad (661-750 AD) and Abbasid Caliphates (750-1258 AD): These periods saw the consolidation of power and the establishment of orthodox interpretations. The Umayyads and Abbasids promoted specific theological schools, like the Ash’ari school in Sunni Islam, which emphasized predestination and divine attributes in a way that discouraged rationalist interpretations like those from the Mu’tazilite school, which advocated for reason and free will.
3. Mu’tazilites vs. Ash’arites: The Mu’tazilites, who thrived during the early Abbasid period, promoted a rationalist approach to the Quran and were initially favored by the caliphs. However, during the reign of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil (847-861 AD), the Mu’tazilites were persecuted, and the Ash’arite doctrine, which opposed rationalism, became dominant. This shift marked a significant suppression of diverse theological interpretations.

Medieval and Early Modern Period

1. Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD): Al-Ghazali’s works critiqued the philosophers and Mu’tazilites, promoting a more mystical and orthodox interpretation of Islam. His influence solidified the dominance of Ash’arite theology, contributing to the marginalization of rationalist and philosophical approaches within Sunni Islam.
2. Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328 AD): Ibn Taymiyyah was a controversial figure whose works criticized many of the prevailing practices and interpretations of his time, advocating for a return to what he considered the pure teachings of the Quran and Hadith. His views were often seen as extreme and were suppressed by the religious and political authorities of his time. However, his writings later influenced reformist and puritanical movements, including Wahhabism.

Colonial and Modern Period

1. Wahhabism and Reform Movements: In the 18th century, the Wahhabi movement in the Arabian Peninsula sought to purge Islam of what it considered innovations and idolatry. This puritanical interpretation gained state support in Saudi Arabia and suppressed other interpretations. The spread of Wahhabism, especially with the backing of oil wealth, further contributed to a homogenization of Islamic practice and theology.
2. Modern Reformers: Figures like Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905) and Rashid Rida (1865-1935) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries attempted to reconcile Islam with modernity. Their efforts were often met with resistance from traditionalist scholars and political authorities who saw such reforms as threats to established norms.

Suppression and Control

Rulers often favored certain interpretations that aligned with their political agendas. This could lead to suppressing alternative viewpoints. Theological debates became fierce at times, with some scholars labeled heretics or persecuted for their interpretations. The suppression of the Mutazila school, known for its rationalist approach, is an example.

The suppression of interpretations narrowed the range of acceptable Islamic thought.This emphasis on established interpretations can make it challenging for some Muslims to reconcile the Quran with contemporary issues.

Movements advocating for a return to the Quran’s original meaning often criticize established interpretations. Debates continue on issues like gender roles, scientific advancements, and the role of reason in interpreting the Quran.

Impact on Interfaith Relations: The suppression of diverse interpretations within Islam has led to a perception of Islam as a monolithic faith, both among Muslims and non-Muslims. This has affected interfaith relations, including those between Hindus and Muslims, where Islam is often seen through the lens of its most rigid interpretations.

Today, there’s a renewed emphasis on interpreting the Quran within its historical context and utilizing reason (Ijtihad) to address contemporary issues.

Liberal and Dissenting Voices on the Interpretation of Quran

Here are some examples of progressive or liberal movements in Islam influenced by Quranic scholarship:

1. Islamic Feminism

• This movement challenges patriarchal interpretations of the Quran and seeks to promote gender equality.
• Scholars like Amina Wadud, Fatima Mernissi, and Asma Barlas use Quranic analysis to argue for women’s rights in areas like education, inheritance, and political participation.
• They emphasize verses promoting women’s intellectual capacity and leadership roles.

2. Qur’anist Movements

• These movements believe in a return to the Quran as the sole source of Islamic authority, bypassing later interpretations and traditions.
• They often advocate for a more rational and egalitarian reading of the Quran, challenging social hierarchies and promoting individual reasoning.
• Groups like the “Quranists” in Iran and Turkey exemplify this approach.

3. Islamic Liberation Theology

• Inspired by Christian liberation theology, this movement seeks to apply Quranic principles to issues of social justice and poverty alleviation.
• Scholars like Fazlur Rahman and Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im argue for interpretations that prioritize social welfare and human dignity.
• They emphasize Quranic verses promoting justice for the oppressed and challenging oppressive social structures.

4. Modernist Movements

• Early 20th-century thinkers like Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida advocated for re-interpreting the Quran in light of modern scientific advancements and social realities.
• They argued for a more flexible approach to Islamic law (Fiqh) to address contemporary challenges.
• Their focus on reason and context in interpreting the Quran continues to influence modern Islamic scholarship.

5. Ijtihad Movements

• These movements emphasize the importance of independent reasoning (Ijtihad) in interpreting the Quran.
• They believe that Islamic scholars have a responsibility to use their knowledge and reason to address contemporary issues.
• This approach allows for a more dynamic and evolving understanding of Islamic principles in the modern world.

Progressive or Liberal Movements in Islam

Progressive and liberal movements in Islam seek to reinterpret traditional Islamic teachings in ways that align with contemporary values such as human rights, gender equality, and social justice. These movements are often grounded in Quranic scholarship that emphasizes the principles of justice, compassion, and rational inquiry. Here are some notable examples:

1. The Modernist Movement

Key Figures:

• Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905): An Egyptian scholar who sought to harmonize Islam with modernity. He emphasized the use of reason (ijtihad) and argued for educational reform, social justice, and the reinterpretation of Quranic texts to reflect contemporary values.
• Rashid Rida (1865-1935): A disciple of Abduh, Rida continued the work of modernist reform, advocating for a return to the early, pure practices of Islam while incorporating modern scientific and intellectual advancements.

Impact:

• Emphasis on rationality and reinterpretation of Islamic teachings.
• Advocacy for women’s education and participation in public life.
• Support for constitutionalism and democratic governance.

2. Feminist Interpretations

Key Figures:

• Fatema Mernissi (1940-2015): A Moroccan sociologist who critiqued traditional interpretations of Islam that justify the subordination of women. She argued for a rereading of Quranic texts that emphasize gender equality.
• Amina Wadud (b. 1952): An American scholar who wrote “Qur’an and Woman,” where she reinterprets the Quran from a feminist perspective, arguing for equality and justice for women in all aspects of life.

Impact:

• Promoting gender equality and women’s rights within Islamic frameworks.
• Challenging patriarchal interpretations of Quranic verses.
• Encouraging female leadership and participation in religious and social spheres.

3. Qur’anic Hermeneutics and Contextualism

Key Figures:

• Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988): A Pakistani scholar who advocated for a contextual understanding of the Quran. He believed that the Quranic message should be interpreted in light of the historical context of its revelation and the contemporary needs of society.
• Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (b. 1946): A Sudanese scholar who argues for the compatibility of Islam with human rights and secular governance. He emphasizes the need for reinterpretation of Sharia in the context of modern values.

Impact:

• Development of a contextual approach to Quranic interpretation.
• Promotion of human rights and democratic principles within an Islamic framework.
• Advocacy for secularism and the separation of religion from state affairs.

4. Progressive Islamic Movements

Key Movements:

• Al-Nahda (Tunisia): A political and social movement that combines Islamic principles with democratic governance and human rights. Founded by Rached Ghannouchi, it advocates for pluralism, women’s rights, and social justice.
• Musawah (Global): An international movement advocating for equality and justice in the Muslim family. It works towards the reform of family laws and practices that discriminate against women.

Impact:

• Promotion of democratic values and human rights in Muslim-majority countries.
• Advocacy for legal and social reforms to enhance gender equality.
• Encouragement of pluralism and interfaith dialogue.

5. Queer Muslim Movements

Key Figures:

• Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle (b. 1969): An American scholar who explores the intersection of Islam and LGBTQ+ rights. His work, “Homosexuality in Islam,” argues for a reinterpretation of Quranic texts to support sexual diversity.
• Inclusive Mosque Initiative (IMI): A UK-based organization that provides inclusive spaces for prayer and worship, welcoming people of all genders, sexual orientations, and backgrounds.

Impact:

• Advocacy for LGBTQ+ rights within Islamic contexts.
• Creation of inclusive religious spaces that welcome diverse identities.
• Challenging homophobic and transphobic interpretations of Islamic texts.

6. Environmental and Social Justice Movements

Key Figures:

• Ibrahim Abdul-Matin: An American environmentalist and author of “Green Deen,” which explores the Islamic principles related to environmental stewardship and sustainability.
• Khalid Abou El Fadl (b. 1963): A prominent scholar who emphasizes the importance of justice, compassion, and ethical behavior in Islam. He critiques authoritarianism and advocates for human rights and social justice.

Impact:

• Promoting environmental sustainability as a religious duty.
• Encouraging social justice and ethical behavior in accordance with Islamic principles.
• Challenging authoritarian and unjust practices in Muslim societies.

Several other examples of progressive or liberal movements in Islam have been influenced by Quranic scholarship and have sought to promote a more progressive and liberal understanding of Islam:

Neo-Modernism: This movement emerged in the 1960s and 1970s in Indonesia, emphasizing a progressive and liberal interpretation of Islam. It was influenced by Quranic scholarship and sought to reconcile Islamic teachings with modern values and practices.

Progressive Islam: This movement emphasizes a more inclusive and tolerant interpretation of Islam, often incorporating elements from Quranic scholarship. It has been influenced by thinkers like Omid Safi, who has written extensively on progressive Islam and its relationship to Quranic studies.

Transnational Progressive Islam: This movement is characterized by its transnational character and its engagement with contemporary issues. It is influenced by Quranic scholarship and seeks to promote a more progressive and liberal understanding of Islam.

Islamic Liberalism: This movement emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and human rights within the context of Islamic teachings. It has been influenced by Quranic scholarship and seeks to promote a more liberal and progressive interpretation of Islam.

Quranic Hermeneutics: This movement focuses on the interpretation of the Quran and its relationship to modern issues. It is influenced by Quranic scholarship and seeks to promote a more progressive and liberal understanding of Islamic teachings.

Neo-Modernism

Neo-Modernism is a progressive and liberal movement within Islamic thought that emerged in Indonesia, largely shaped by the ideas and writings of Nurcholish Madjid. Madjid’s ideas on Islam, modernity, and pluralism were highly influential in shaping the Neo-Modernist movement. It seeks to reconcile Islamic teachings with modernity and promote an inclusive, pluralistic understanding of Islam. While Neo-Modernism shares some similarities with Islamic modernism more broadly, it is a distinct movement that emerged in the specific context of Indonesia in the late 20th century. It emphasizes the importance of individual freedom, human rights, and pluralism within an Islamic framework.

• Neo-Modernism combines elements of traditional Islamic thought with modernist ideas. It seeks to reconcile Islamic teachings with modern values and practices.
• Neo-Modernism emphasizes an “inclusive” understanding of Islam that can accommodate diverse cultural and religious traditions. It promotes values like civil society, individual freedom, and human rights within an Islamic framework.
• In contrast to more conservative or fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, Neo-Modernism embraces a progressive and liberal approach. It rejects communalism and the politicization of Islam for narrow political interests.
• Neo-Modernism has been influential in framing a moderate-progressive Muslim discourse in Indonesia. Madjid’s ideas have had a lasting impact on the development of progressive Islamic movements in the country.

The key differences between Neo-Modernism and traditional Islamic thought are:

1. Approach to Islamic Sources
   1. Neo-Modernism emphasizes a critical reexamination of the Quran and Sunnah (the practice of the Prophet), interpreting them in their historical context and applying them to the modern context.
   1. Traditional Islamic thought tends to rely more on the literal interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah, with less emphasis on historical contextualization.
2. Attitude towards Ijtihad (Independent Reasoning)
   1. Neo-Modernism promotes the use of ijtihad, or independent reasoning, to reinterpret Islamic teachings and adapt them to modern circumstances.
   1. Traditional Islamic thought often places more emphasis on taqlid, or the imitation of established Islamic schools of jurisprudence, and is more skeptical of ijtihad.
3. Relationship between Islam and Modernity
   1. Neo-Modernism seeks to reconcile Islamic teachings with modern values and practices, such as democracy, civil rights, and progress.
   1. Traditional Islamic thought can be more wary of Western influences and may be more resistant to adapting Islamic teachings to modern contexts.
4. Attitude towards Vernacular Traditions
   1. Neo-Modernism is more open to incorporating local cultural and religious traditions into Islamic practice, as long as they do not contradict the core teachings of the Quran and Sunnah.
   1. Traditional Islamic thought tends to be more puritanical, rejecting syncretic vernacular traditions as deviations from “true” Islam.
5. Institutional Approach
   1. Neo-Modernism has been influential in shaping the thinking of progressive Islamic organizations, such as Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama, in Indonesia.
   1. Traditional Islamic thought is often associated with more conservative and literalist Islamic institutions and movements.

Neo-Modernism has significantly influenced contemporary Islamic movements in Indonesia and beyond:

• Influence on Islamic Organizations: Neo-Modernist ideas have influenced various Islamic organizations in Indonesia, such as Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama. These organizations have played a significant role in shaping the country’s religious landscape and promoting progressive Islamic thought.
• Global Impact: Neo-Modernism has also had a global impact, influencing Islamic thought and movements beyond Indonesia. It has contributed to a more progressive and liberal understanding of Islam, particularly among younger generations and in the context of contemporary issues.
• Critique and Challenges: While Neo-Modernism has been influential, it has also faced criticism and challenges. Some critics argue that it lacks a clear theory of the ethical and does not adequately address the peculiarities of modernity.
• Evolution and Adaptation: Neo-Modernism continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary issues and challenges. It remains a vital and influential force in shaping progressive Islamic thought and movements.

The reformist movement in the Middle East significantly influenced Indonesian Islamic thought through the transmission of Islamic reformist ideas from the Middle East to Indonesia, which were then adapted and applied within the local context..

• Transmission of Ideas: Islamic reformist ideas from the Middle East, particularly from Egypt, were transmitted to Indonesia through publications and networks. These ideas were interpreted and applied within the local context, leading to the development of Islamic modernism in Indonesia.
• Influence of Muhammad Abduh and Jamaluddin al-Afghani: The reformist ideas of Muhammad Abduh and Jamaluddin al-Afghani, prominent figures in the Middle Eastern reformist movement, were particularly influential in shaping Indonesian Islamic thought. Their ideas emphasized the importance of ijtihad (independent reasoning) and the need to adapt Islamic teachings to modern circumstances.
• Local Adaptation: The reformist ideas were adapted to the local context in Indonesia, leading to the development of unique Islamic movements such as Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama. These movements emphasized the importance of education, social welfare, and political engagement, while also promoting a more progressive and inclusive understanding of Islam.

Is Islamophobia Justified?

The above write-up should allow you to form your own opinion on whether or not Islamophobia is justified. I will allow you to form your own opinion without trying to brow-beat you into a fixed position.

However, consider the following plausible reasons for Islamophobia and how you can overcome it if you have it.

Islamophobia is primarily rooted in:

• A lack of accurate information about Islam and limited exposure to Muslims 
• Sensationalized reporting in the media on terrorism and extremism often associated with Islam, leading to harmful stereotyping of the entire Muslim community, defining them only by their extremes rather than the majority.
• Need to use it as a tool for political manipulation, manufacturing consent for wars and garnering votes through anti-Muslim rhetoric.
• Sociological factors, such as the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat, and psychological factors, such as cognitive biases and prejudices.

Overcoming Islamophobia requires a multifaceted approach that involves understanding its causes, addressing its manifestations, and promoting a positive and inclusive environment. Here are some strategies to overcome Islamophobia:

• Education and Awareness: Educate yourself and others about Islam, its teachings, and its practices. This can be done through various means such as reading books, attending workshops, and engaging in interfaith dialogues.
• Personal Interaction: Personal interaction with Muslims can help to break down stereotypes and misconceptions. Encourage people to engage with Muslims in their daily lives, such as through work, school, or community activities.
• Media Representation: Promote positive and accurate media representation of Muslims and Islam. This can be done by supporting media outlets that provide diverse and inclusive coverage of Muslim issues and by engaging in discussions about the impact of media on our perceptions of Islam.
• Community Engagement: Engage with Muslim communities and participate in their events and activities. This can help to build bridges and foster understanding between different communities.
• Policy and Legal Support: Support policies and legal measures that protect the rights of Muslims and promote religious freedom. This can include advocating for anti-discrimination laws and policies that address hate crimes.
• Interfaith Dialogue: Engage in interfaith dialogues and discussions to promote understanding and respect between different faiths. This can help to break down stereotypes and misconceptions and promote a more inclusive and accepting environment.
• Countering Hate Speech: Counter hate speech and discrimination by promoting a culture of respect, tolerance, and inclusivity. This can be done through various means such as organizing events, creating social media campaigns, and engaging in discussions about the impact of hate speech.
• Supporting Muslim Organizations: Support Muslim organizations and initiatives that promote understanding and acceptance of Islam. This can include donating to organizations that provide services to Muslim communities or participating in their events and activities.
• Addressing Systemic Issues: Address systemic issues that contribute to Islamophobia, such as institutional racism and discrimination. This can be done through various means such as advocating for policy changes, engaging in community organizing, and promoting education and awareness.
• Empowering Muslim Voices: Empower Muslim voices and perspectives by providing platforms for them to share their experiences and stories. This can be done through various means such as creating social media campaigns, organizing events, and engaging in discussions about the impact of Islamophobia.

by D. Samarender Reddy

Director, 7Qube Biz Solutions – https://7qube.com/

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